The Music of the Kora
Above: The opening lines to Bach's famous Invention no. 8 in F major, typeset by Allen Garvin for the mutopia project. Could a griot possibly play this on a kora?
"The harmonies [of the kora], in comparison with those of the West, are summarized informally by one of my colleagues, ‘So near, yet so far’” (Knight 1971, 27-28).
In Basic Physics of Stringed Instruments, we showed that the frequency of the nth harmonic is proportional to the velocity of the wave on the string. Though the derivation is beyond the scope of this section, it can be shown that the velocity, and hence the frequency, is proportional to the square root of the tension on the string:
The inverse proportionality of length explains why a string of shorter length produces a higher frequency. With the kora, however, the length of the string is fixed, as is its linear mass density (the case in all instruments). So, the only way to change the frequency of the string is by changing the tension. The previous section discussed how this is physically done--by sliding iron rings up and down the neck of the instrument. Now, let us look at how the kora is tuned musically.
Tuning
The first thing to note about the tuning of the kora is that there is no single standard tuning. Knight remarks that today there are three to four commonly accepted tunings, and further that "...within the basic framework of the three or four tunings recognised by the musicians, a considerable amount of individual freedom is possible. It is not uncommon, when three or four kora players join, to hear comments of dissatisfaction amongst them over the tuning of the group as a whole” (Knight 1971,26). In Western music, different tunings of an instrument are far from unheard of. As a personal example, my uncle was once trying to learn some of the repertoire of Led Zeppelin. Scattered throughout his living room were three acoustic guitars, each tuned differently, appropriate to the song he wanted to learn. However, the different tunings of the kora are of a fundamental difference.
My uncle had each acoustic guitar tuned to a different key or scale, which is just a group of notes that sound good together. In Western music, the scale is tempered, which means that the intervals between consecutive notes are constant. (Read the sidebar!) The key difference in tuning the kora is that the musicians tune each string to the frequency that they want it at (which is almost always within a certain range). Aning, in "Tuning the Kora: A case Study of the Norms of a Gambian Musician," states that "The pitches of the Kora strings were not always in tune with their tempered equivalents. Except in four cases, most of them were not in 'tune' with their tempered piano equivalents" (Aning 1982, 167). Aning further examines the intervals in terms of cents, which is just a way of dividing the interval between consecutive notes. Like the name suggests, each consecutive interval, called a semitone, is divided into 100. This means that 3 semitones (a minor third) differ by 300 cents, 7 semitones (a perfect fifth) differ by 700 cents, and so on.
The results of Aning's cents-study will not be repeated here, though the article is very interesting and the gist of it can be seen from chart on page 168. Instead, I'll just mention some of the most notable things: the average magnitude of the difference in cents from the a kora string to the tempered equivalent is 24 cents in the first tuning and 18 in the second tuning; the range of the magnitude of this difference is 0 to 53 cents; the difference between intervals depends on which octave the interval is in (the kora spans three octaves); and, last but not least, "In tuning the Kora to play heptatonic music, the musician applies no external pitch reference. He depends solely on his cultural experience and personal expertise" (Aning 1982, 174-175). I find this last statement remarkable--though perhaps this is because I am semi tone-deaf. Nonetheless, though, it is still very impressive. |
Well, recall that the first overtone (second harmonic) is double the frequency of the fundamental. In between, the scale defines 11 notes. If we want them to be equally spaced (tempered) and to arrive at double the frequency after 12 notes, then the ratio of frequencies between consecutive notes (ie, semitones) must be the twelfth root of two! This is about 1.05946... For precise measurement of frequencies (which we will soon consider), this interval is often divided into 100 smaller units called cents. The necessary details are provided in the body of text; I'll only mention that 1 cent is equal to the twelve hundredth root of two! This is about 1.000578... |
While Aning focuses more closely on differences in tunings within the kora, Knight focuses on differences between koras. In particular, he examines the most probable tuning of a certain string of the kora. He found that "...out of 89 instruments, 67, or 77 per cent, were tuned to a fundamental between Eb (77,782 hz) and G (97,999 hz)" (Knight 1971, 28). He further mentions that the pitches on the koras were not tuned exactly to these notes, but close to them. (On behalf of Aning, I ask "how many cents, Knight?") Of these koras, the most probable note was F# weighing in at 17 instruments, followed closely by F at 16 instruments. He uses F as a basis for transcriptions, stating that “The pitch F in the centre of the area is a clear choice. It affords an easy notation, and represents the music more closely than the conventional choice of C...the kora scale is thus expressed as...F, G, A, Bb, C, D, E, F” (Knight 1971, 29).
If, reader, you have any musical experience, you will immediately recognize this as the scale of F major. (It is possible to play Bach's invention no. 8 on the kora!) There are a couple things to note about this. First, if you ever happen to find yourself in an impromptu jam session with a griot, play in F and hope for the best. (This jest is taken more seriously on the next page when the emergence of the kora as a "world instrument" is discussed.) |
A second thing to note is that the kora is a 'fixed-scale' instrument, at least while its being played. By this, I mean that the musician only has a certain set of notes to play, similar to some Western instruments like the harmonica and differing from most Western instruments like the piano and the guitar. Third, the scale is heptatonic (consisting of seven tones), as are both major and minor scales, the scales of most Western songs.
Before we move on further to discuss songs and playing techniques on the kora, it is worth highlighting some of the differences already encountered between the kora and Western music. The first is differing concepts of pitch. Knight, in trying to develop a standardized notation and tablature for the kora, writes, “The first problem faced in using the staff is the choice of a pitch level for the transcription...The question at issue here is not only the choice of a pitch for notation, but our concept of standard pitch itself...Even among the Mandingo where music is a profession and one might expect a greater degree of standardization, musicians generally work independently, and will assure the researcher that there is no standard pitch for tuning an instrument such as the kora” (Knight 1971, 28). |
So,
the kora is a more personal instrument, unique to the musician, than
typical Western instruments. I (a keyboard player) can sit down at a
piano in some public place and play on it with no trouble (if it's a
decent piano). The same is likely not true for Mandingo with the kora,
even though it is their profession as Knight notes.
Another thing worth noting is that, though there are several commonly accepted tunings today, there was only one in the past, which was "...known variously as Dumo, Kumbemba (Great tuning), Balabeno (Balafon tuning), Tomoraba, Silakoi (Clear road), or Silaba (Big road). It is most commonly referred to as Silaba today" (Knight 1971, 24). It is interesting how the tuning has differentiated. Quoting Knight from the same page, he says that, "There is a regional bias in the use of these tunings, representing the appropriateness of one tuning or another for songs from different areas of the Mande culture." Again, we see how the kora is a more personal, unique instrument; it almost differs in some respects from the typical Western concept of instruments--'the kora' is really 'a particular griot's kora.' This is very different from standardization, a product of the Industrial and Modern Revolutions, in the Western world. This point will be discussed further when we analyze the kora's global emergence. If you are interested in Mande culture, check out Max's page such a discussion and Jayk's page for a discussion of the diaspora of the Jaliya. (And then, of course, return to this page to satisfy all of your further kora-related musical questions.) |
Songs and Playing Techniques
What types of songs does a griot play? Are they purely instrumental? What is the typical structure of a song? I think the best way to answer these questions is to actually listen to some kora music--two songs and analyses are included in the next section. That being said, two songs do not and cannot represent the entire repertoire, so a few words are worth mentioning.
In his excellent overview of griots and their culture, Hale states, “It is difficult to separate the musical art of griots and griottes from their vocal art. The two forms work together in a synergistic fashion that produces a powerful effect on audiences and often surprises those who seek to learn about one or the other in isolation” (Hale 1998, 146). So, there is definitely singing involved in the music... Unfortunately, the two songs I selected do not, though they were not just selected willy-nilly (see below). This just gives us more reason to talk about the vocal aspects! Like tuning, "Within the Mande world, styles of singing vary from east (Mali and upper Guinea) to west (Gambia and Senegal)..." (Hale 1998, 165). Here's another difference from the Western world: typically, we (or at least I, if I may serve as Western Representative) think of music styles--including singing--as differing by genre, not necessarily geographic location, though some genres are more popular in some regions. We also think of lyrics as products of the artist's imagination and his/her message to get across--what do griots sing about? Knight states that
In his excellent overview of griots and their culture, Hale states, “It is difficult to separate the musical art of griots and griottes from their vocal art. The two forms work together in a synergistic fashion that produces a powerful effect on audiences and often surprises those who seek to learn about one or the other in isolation” (Hale 1998, 146). So, there is definitely singing involved in the music... Unfortunately, the two songs I selected do not, though they were not just selected willy-nilly (see below). This just gives us more reason to talk about the vocal aspects! Like tuning, "Within the Mande world, styles of singing vary from east (Mali and upper Guinea) to west (Gambia and Senegal)..." (Hale 1998, 165). Here's another difference from the Western world: typically, we (or at least I, if I may serve as Western Representative) think of music styles--including singing--as differing by genre, not necessarily geographic location, though some genres are more popular in some regions. We also think of lyrics as products of the artist's imagination and his/her message to get across--what do griots sing about? Knight states that
“In general the songs commemorate historic events in the distant and recent past of the Mandingo. They are dedicated to specific people whose deeds and claims to greatness they extol. In addition, praise for the lineage of the person, proverbs, wisdom of a religious or secular nation, and salutes to personal or famous patrons of music may be included in any song…” (Knight 1971, 24).
So, is a piece of kora music without any vocals just an instrumental, just something to listen to? In "The Rhythmic Structure of West African Music," Agawu does not think so. He points out that many of the 800 or so known African languages are tone languages, or languages where variations in tone distinguish words of different meanings that would otherwise sound identical (Agawu 1987, 405). He goes on to give some examples, such as the word Daadee, which can either mean 'iron' or 'large tree' depending on a shift in tone or inflection. This is a remarkable concept, and it has profound implications in music. Agawu states,
"To the West African, the idea that an instrumental genre exists outside the functional domain of words and their meanings is simply absurd” (Agawu 1987, 415).
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This is something that certainly does not exist in Western culture or music. In Western songs, there are common conceptions about sound--minor chords sounding sad, major chords sounding happy. (Check out the video on the left to have Stewie Griffin from Family Guy give some examples.) But the concept of a tone language and instrumental music having certain meanings associated with it is something I struggle to grasp. I sometimes raise the inflection at the end of my voice to signal a question...but the same word having several meanings depending on how I say it? I can't even begin to imagine the consequences this has for the perception of music.
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Barring vocals, what type of music can we expect from a griot with his kora? In the construction of the kora (see the end of Basic Physics of Stringed Instruments or Noah's page for a fuller account), the strings fan out into two sections, one for either hand. This unique design contributes to and allows for the unique sound of the kora. On this topic, Knight states, “However it [the kora] is classified, the division of strings into two distinct planes, accessible to only one hand each, is an important factor in determining the playing style of the instrument. The player holds the instrument by the hand grips on either side of the strings with his third, fourth and fifth fingers. The thumbs and forefingers pluck the strings, the thumbs confined mostly to the lower strings and the fingers producing the melodic element in the upper register” (Knight 1971, 27). Due to this separation, there are many ostinatos (repeated patterns of notes) in kora music. The ostinatos form a basis for the tune, both rhythmically and harmonically, to which the forefingers add melodic components and the thumbs add bass. Such a separation of strings is indeed unique. The most surprising thing to me, though, is that the strings on either side include frequencies from the whole range of the instrument. I cannot think of a Western instrument with such a property. I am imagining a pianist playing a melody on the far left end of the key bed, a stringed instrument whose strings of higher frequency are interspersed throughout the neck.
Rhythm in West African Music
Rhythm in West African music, including music of the kora, is not only a defining feature but also one of the most important aspects. To appreciate this importance, it is essential to note another aspect of West African culture and language that is very unintuitive to Western culture: like tone and inflection changing the meaning of words, rhythm of spoken words can also change their meaning. In the same article, Agawu gives the example of the word abodzokpo, which, depending on the temporal rhythm, can mean 'nursery' or 'Abo has jumped the fence' (Agawu 1987, 406).
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“...scholars have continued to devote their energies to examining those very aspects of African music that the nineteenth-century explorers commented upon. And rhythm, again, emerges as the predominant concern" (Agawu 1987, 402). |
"It is the changes in rhythm, therefore, that determine meaning” (Agawu 1987, 405-406). This is another remarkable concept that I struggle to wrap my head around. The most important thing that it does for me--which I hope it also does for you, reader--is to give me some idea of how important rhythm is to the West African. With this in mind, lets look at some aspects of rhythm and try to understand them. The following draws heavily from another article by Agawu, "The 'Standard Pattern' of West African Rhythm."
What is this so-called 'Standard Pattern?' Well, what he means by a pattern is simply "a distinctly shaped and often memorable rhythmic figure of modest duration that is played as an ostinato throughout a given dance composition" (Agawu 2006, 1), and the adjective 'standard,' as one may venture a guess, just refers to a common, important one. The standard pattern consists of five quarter notes and two eighth notes. Adopting Agawu's notation, we can refer to this pattern as follows: <2212221>, where 2 represents a quarter note (two eighth notes) and 1 represents an eighth note. For those musically inclined readers, does this pattern remind you of something else in music, perhaps related to scales? As Agawu and others have noted, this is precisely the sequence of semitones in the Western major scale. We know much about this scales and harmony--do these things transfer over to rhythm in West Africa? That is, are there modulations in rhythm the same way there are modulations in key? Are there rhythmic centers the same way that there are tonal centers?
Agawu explores these questions and draws on the work of Jeff Pressing, a mathematician who employed group theory to explore what he called 'cognitive isomorphisms' between pitch and rhythm in various world musical cultures (Agawu 2006, 5). The answers to these questions, if there are any, are unavailable to me and unbeknownst by me. (I don't have Pressing's work, nor could I find it.) Still, though, they are intriguing and infinitely interesting to ask. Another rhythmical aspect that Agawu explores is 'rotational possibilities,' which I think would be better termed 'shifting possibilities' because the rhythmic pattern is simply shifted over. For example, the standard pattern through a rotation of 3 is <2221221> (compare rotation of 0 <2212221>; the rotation 3 starts on the third beat (in our notation, digit) of rotation 0). The idea behind this is that "the pattern might be begun at different points and still retain certain essential features..." (Agawu 2006, 13). This is another idea of a 'cognitive isomorphism'--specifically, the rotation of this pattern in terms of scales is analogous to modulation of keys--shifting the tonal center of the scale to some other note in (or often not in) the scale.
Analysis of the Analysis: Are Western Ideas Applicable?
"Imagine, if you will, a new world order in which African approaches to rhythm pedagogy predominated in the American academy. Patterns would be taught holistically rather than atomistically; theoretical work would privilege gestalten and larger rhythmic units over pulses akin to the movement of millipedes' feet; and no one would be granted a music degree who could not dance!" (Agawu 2006, 12).
All of the major authors and researchers I have included--Knight, Agawu, Aning, Hale--have at some point in their works asked some form of the following question: can we really think about music of the kora, the music of West Africa, the way that we are accustomed to thinking about music--the 'Western way?' Is this justifiable, is this even useful? I hope the answer to this final question is some degree of 'yes,' and I will argue below that it is. But first, another quotation from Agawu that phrases these questions much better than I could ever hope to do. I hope I haven't gone too quote-heavy already, but this one is too beautiful not to include.
The question remains, however, for those committed to cross-cultural understanding who do not choose to overlook the politics of ordering knowledge: If the original culture-bearers are oblivious to our way of assigning properties to their rhythmic patters, are we justified in insisting the validity of our way? One answer might be that our way is valid because we know it to be so within our intellectual economy; theirs may be valid too, but not necessarily to us. Another answer might be that our way translates their way into a more precise analytic language. Our intellectual economy is stronger because discourse about music is cultivated within institutions, not gathered informally from sporadic utterance made at the site of performance. But several follow-up questions arise: Given that they have a way that is knowable by us, what is our ethical responsibility towards that way? Do we make an honest effort to learn to do things their way, or do we maintain the a priori superiority of our way? In short, if the standard pattern can be produced and analyzed from an additive conception, and if this mode of production and analysis comes more easily to a (Western) individual, why should s/he bother with a manifestly different, perhaps more challenging mode of (African) learning? (Agawu 2006, 12).
These questions are not only applicable to the standard pattern, but also to the tuning, scale, harmony, and all other musical aspects of the kora we have discussed. Indeed, these are similar to the same questions that we have been asking ourselves the entire semester, framed around kora music: Who is telling the story? What is his/her purpose? How does this affect his/her and our understanding? How does this affect what s/he includes and excludes? The whole of the previous analysis of the kora is related to the established musical ideas that Western society has. This is not, by any means, meant to belittle or throw aside the ideas that a West African or a griot has about music. Indeed, it is only meant to allow us Western readers to consider and appreciate the music in terms of things we already know, for it would be impossible--at least in the context of this website--to do so otherwise. This is why I think it is useful to analyze the kora the way that I did.
But, is it valid to do so? Do we really need to quantify and quantize the standard pattern using group theory and 'cognitive isomorphisms?' Can we not appreciate the long-standing tradition of a griot and his kora unless we superimpose our musical theory onto the scene? It is certainly interesting to do such things, but is it ethical? These are questions that I do not have the answers to, but I hope that they are thought-provoking nonetheless. I am reminded of a recent lecture where we discussed the fact there is no mention of slavery in Christian's Maps of Time. It was said that the mention of slavery would counteract the flow and purpose of Christian's argument--that of the ever increasing complexity and the 'advancement' of (Western) society (Friday 4/10 Lecture). The fact that Western ideas are immediately pressed onto the kora is a sort of reflection of this, in that their ideas are excluded to tell the story from our point of view with the purpose of us understanding it.
Another reason that I think Western ideas are useful is because the kora is expanding its realm and beginning to play alongside other (Western) instruments--on the next page, we'll look at a piece including the kora, riti, and acoustic guitar. Thus, it is important to know how the kora relates to these instruments. The question still remains though: Why is it the kora mixing with Western instruments and vice versa? Must we statistically impose the scale of F major onto the kora, or could we modify the scale of F major to fit the kora? Professor Selcer emphasized that the Colombian Exchange was really an exchange between the "Old" and "New" Worlds. Perhaps it is possible that, rather than the dragging East westward and ending up drowning, the two could visit each others shore to exchange and enhance their existing ideology. Keep this in mind as we take a look at the kora becoming a 'global instrument' in Songs and Sources.
But, is it valid to do so? Do we really need to quantify and quantize the standard pattern using group theory and 'cognitive isomorphisms?' Can we not appreciate the long-standing tradition of a griot and his kora unless we superimpose our musical theory onto the scene? It is certainly interesting to do such things, but is it ethical? These are questions that I do not have the answers to, but I hope that they are thought-provoking nonetheless. I am reminded of a recent lecture where we discussed the fact there is no mention of slavery in Christian's Maps of Time. It was said that the mention of slavery would counteract the flow and purpose of Christian's argument--that of the ever increasing complexity and the 'advancement' of (Western) society (Friday 4/10 Lecture). The fact that Western ideas are immediately pressed onto the kora is a sort of reflection of this, in that their ideas are excluded to tell the story from our point of view with the purpose of us understanding it.
Another reason that I think Western ideas are useful is because the kora is expanding its realm and beginning to play alongside other (Western) instruments--on the next page, we'll look at a piece including the kora, riti, and acoustic guitar. Thus, it is important to know how the kora relates to these instruments. The question still remains though: Why is it the kora mixing with Western instruments and vice versa? Must we statistically impose the scale of F major onto the kora, or could we modify the scale of F major to fit the kora? Professor Selcer emphasized that the Colombian Exchange was really an exchange between the "Old" and "New" Worlds. Perhaps it is possible that, rather than the dragging East westward and ending up drowning, the two could visit each others shore to exchange and enhance their existing ideology. Keep this in mind as we take a look at the kora becoming a 'global instrument' in Songs and Sources.